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Comparative  View  of  Qovernments, 


WENZEL. 


;^ 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW 

OF  THE 

EXECUTIVE  AND   LEGISLATIVE  DEPARTMENTS 

OF  THE 

GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES,    FRANCE, 
ENGLAND,   AND    GERMANY. 

JOHN   WENZEL,  i  i  ^  i  ^  .  -'         .''.'>' 

Assistant  Librarian  of  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  Boston  University.       •  >     >     ^  ' 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. : 

D.    C.   HEATH   &   COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS. 

1909. 


Copyright,  1891, 
By  JOHN  WENZEL 


GR'T 


PREFACE. 


The  idea  of  arranging  outlines  of  the  governments  of  the  United  States,  France,  England,  and 
Germany  in  parallel  columns  that  comparison  might  be  more  readily  made,  was  suggested  while 
reading  Professor  Woodrow  Wilson's  work  on  historical  and  practical  poUtics,  entitled  "The  State." 
It  was  with  the  aid  of  this  and  a  number  of  other  works  that  the  Comparative  View  of  Gov- 
ernments was  prepared.  Having  been  compiled  for  private  use,  it  has  been  published  at  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  William  E.  Huntington  and  others,  believing  that  it  would  prove  useful  in  fixing 
in  mind  the  leading  facts  of  these  governments,  which  are  brought  out  much  more  fully  in  "  The 
State  "  and  other  works  on  civil  government.  The  writer  takes  this  opportunity  of  thanking  those 
who  have  aided  in  the  preparation  of  these  pages,  and  especially  Professor  Wilson,  who  has  kindly 
consented   to   examine   the   manuscript   and   to   make   suggestions    and   corrections. 

iii 

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COMPARATIVE    VIEW. 


.'UmiTf^D  STATES. 


I.  Constitution. 

Adoption : 

Present  Constitution  adopted  September  1 7, 1 787. 

Amendments : 

Congress  may,  by  two-thirds  vote  of  both 
Houses,  propose  amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion, or  upon  appUcation  of  the  Legislatures  of 
two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  con- 
vention for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in 
either  case,  must  be  ratified  by  the  Legislatures 
of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  con- 
ventions in  three-fourths  thereof. 


Form  of  Government: 
Republic. 


FRANCE. 


I.  Constitution. 

Adoption : 

Present  Constitution  adopted  February  25,  1875. 

Amendments : 

Whenever  the  two  Houses  agree  that  revision  is 
necessary,  and  also  agree  upon  particular  points 
that  should  be  revised,  the  "  National  Assembly," 
composed  of  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  sitting  as  one  body,  convenes  at  Ver- 
sailles, and  acts  upon  the  amendments  proposed, 
the  vote  of  an  absolute  majority  being  decisive. 
The  National  Assembly  also  elects  the  President 
of  the  Republic.     (See  post.) 

Form  of  Government : 
Republic. 


ENGLAND. 


I.   Constitution. 


There  is  no  written  Constitution  except  ordinary 
law  and  precedent.  Five  documents  lie  at  the 
foundation  of  what  is  called  the  Unwritten  Con- 
stitution.    They  are :  — 

1.  Magna  Charta,  by  King  John,  1215  ; 

2.  Petition  of  Rights,  temp.  Charles  I,  1628  ; 

3.  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  temp.  Charles  II,  1679  ; 

4.  Bill  of  Rights,  temp.  William'and  Mary,  1689  ; 

5.  Act  of  Settlement,  temp.  William  III,  1701. 


Form  of  Government: 

Monarchy  in  form,  but  Republic  in  practice. 


GERMANY. 


I.  Constitution. 


Adoption : 

Present  Constitution  adopted  April  16,  1871. 

Amendments  : 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution  can  be  proposed 
by  either  of  the  legislative  bodies,  are  passed  by 
ordinary  legislative  process,  requiring  for  their 
passage  a  majority  simply  of  the  votes  of  the 
Reichstag,  but  forty-five  out  of  the  fifty-eight 
votes  of  the  Bundesrath. 


Form  of  Government . 
Federal  Empire, 


UNITED  STATES. 


II.  Chief  Magistrate. 

President  of  the  United  States. 


Term  of  Office : 
Elected  for  four  years  by  the  Electoral  College, 
and  is  re-eligible. 

The  Electoral  College  consists  of  Electors  appointed  by 
each  State  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators  and 
Representatives  to  which  each  State  may  be  entitled  in 
Congress.  Their  only  duties  are  the  election  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

Qualifications : 
Must  be  a  natural  bom  citizen,  fpurteen  years 
a  resident  of  the   United   States,  and  at  least 
thirty-five  years  of  age. 

Succession : 

In  case  of  his   death,  resignation,  or  inability, 
the  Vice-President  takes  his  place. 

The  newly  chosen  President  of  the  Senate  has  the 
title  of  Vice-President.  In  case  of  the  inability  of  both 
President  and  Vice-President,  the  Secretary  of  State,  and 
after  him,  in  the  order  of  the  creation  of  their  offices, 
the  other  members  of  the  Cabinet,  act  as  President  until 
the  disability  of  the  President  is  removed,  or  a  new 
President  shall  be  elected. 


FRANCE. 


II.  Chief  Magistrate. 

President  of  the  Republic. 

Term  of  Office  : 

Elected  for  seven  years  by  the  National  Assembly, 
and  is  re-eligible. 

The  National  Assembly  meets  for  the  purposes  of  this 
election,  as  for  the  revision  of  the  Constitution,  at  Ver- 
sailles. The  revision  of  the  Constitution  and  the  election 
of  President  are  its  only  functions. 

Qualifications  : 
Must  be  a  citizen,  not  a  member  of  any  family 
which  has  occupied  the  throne  of  France. 

Succession  : 

In  case  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  removal,  the 
Council  of  Ministers  act  until  the  National  As- 
sembly can  meet  and  elect  a  new  President. 


ENGLAND. 


II.  Sovereign. 

King  (or  Queen)  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  Emperor  (or  Empress)  of  India. 

Term  of  Office : 
Holds  office  for  life,  by  hereditary  title,  subject 
to  the  conditions  of  the  Act  of  Settlement. 


Qualifications : 
Must  be  a  descendant  of  Princess  Sophia  of 
Hanover,  must  be  a  Protestant  member  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  married  only  to  a  Prot- 
estant. 

Succession  : 

Hereditary,  following  the  law  of  primogeniture. 


GERMANY. 


II.  Chief  Magistrate. 

King  of  Prussia,  President  of  the  Empire  imder 
the  title  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Term  of  Office  : 
Holds  office  for  life. 


Qualifications : 

Must  be  occupant  of  the  throne  of  Prussia  under 
the  provisions  of  Prussian  law,  by  which   the 
throne  is  at  present  bestowed  upon  the  House 
of  HohenzoUem. 
Succession  : 

Hereditary,  following  the  law  of  primogeniture 
in  the  male  line. 


UNITED   STATES. 


Chief  Magistrate  {continued). 
Responsibility  : 

May  be  impeached  by  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  tried  by  the  Senate,  for  treason,  bribery, 
or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

Commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and 
of  the  miUtia  in  the  service  of  the  Union. 

May  convene  Congress  on  extraordinary  occa- 
sions. 


Must  inform  Congress  of  the  state  of  the  Union, 
and  may  recommend  measures  to  Congress :  this 
is  known  as  the  President's  Message. 


FRANCE. 


Chief  Magistrate  {continued). 
Responsibility : 

May  be  impeached  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  tried  by  the  Senate,  in  case  of  high  treason. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

Has  command  of  the  army  and  navy. 

May  convene  the  Chambers  on  extraordinary 
occasions. 

May  adjourn  the  Chambers  at  any  time  for  a  period 
not  exceeding  one  month.  Can  close  a  regular  session 
of  the  Chambers  at  his  discretion  after  it  has  continued 
five  months;  an  extra  session  when  he  pleases.  Can  with 
the  consent  of  the  Senate  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties even  before  the  expiration  of  five  months.  This  puts 
an  end  to  the  session  of  the  Senate  also,  but  not  to  its 
life.  The  President  must  order  a  new  election  in  case  of 
dissolution. 

At  the  commencement  of  a  new  session  of  the 
Chambers  the  President  of  the  Repubhc  sends  a 
message,  which  is  read  by  one  of  the  Ministers. 


ENGLAND. 

Sovereign  {continued). 

Responsibility  : 

Cannot  be  removed.  The  Ministers  are  person- 
ally responsible  for  the  misconduct  of  the  Sover- 
eign. 

Powers  and  Duties : 

Has  command  of  the  army  and  navy. 

Parliament  cannot  be  assembled,  prorogued,  or 
dissolved  except  by  the  express  command  of  the 
Sovereign. 


At  the  commencement  of  a  new  Parliament 
must  deliver,  either  in  person  or  by  a  commis- 
sion authorized  for  that  purpose,  a  speech  de- 
claring the  cause  of  the  summons. 


GERMANY. 

Chief  Magistrate  {continued). 
Responsibility : 

Irresponsible,  and  cannot  be  removed. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

Commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial  army. 


Summons,  opens,  adjourns,  and  closes  the  two 
Houses.  He  may  dissolve  the  Reichstag  upon 
advice  of  the  Bundesrath. 


All  measures  passed  by  the  Bundesrath  are  pre- 
sented to  the  Reichstag  in  the  name  of  the 
Emperor. 


UNITED  STATES. 


Chief  Magistrate  {continued). 

Powers  and  Duties  {continued)  : 

Bills  passed  by  Congress  must  receive  the  Presi- 
dent's signature  in  order  to  become  laws ;  but 
bills  not  returned  by  him  unsigned  to  Con- 
gress within  ten  days  become  laws  without  his 
signature. 

Has  power  to  veto  any  bill  or  resolution  passed 
by  Congress,  but  subject  to  the  power  of  Con- 
gress to  pass  the  same  after  reconsideration  by  a 
two-thirds  majority  in  each  House. 


Appoints   and   commissions  all   federal   officers 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 


May  make  treaties  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate. 


Has  power  to  grant  reprieves  or  pardons  for 
offenders  against  the  United  States,  except  in 
case  of  impeachment. 


FRANCE. 


Chief  Magistrate  {continued). 

Powers  and  Duties  {continued)  : 

Bills  passed  by  the  Chambers  must  be  signed  by 
the  President,  and  countersigned  by  one  of  his 
Ministers. 


Has  no  veto  power,  but  is  authorized  to  demand 
a  reconsideration  of  any  measure,  by  the  Cham- 
bers. 


Has  power  to  appoint  and  remove  all  officers  of 
the  public  service,  subject  to  the  countersigna- 
ture of  the  Minister  whose  department  is  affected 
in  each  case. 

May  make  treaties  of  peace,  alliance,  and  com- 
merce, but  cannot  declare  war  without  the  ad- 
vice of  the  Chambers. 


Has  power  to  grant  pardons. 


ENGLAND. 


Sovereign  {continued). 

Powers  and  Duties  {continued)  : 

Bills  passed  by  Parliament  must  receive  the  assent 
of  the  Sovereign  in  order  to  become  law. 


Has  legally  a  veto  power ;  but,  because  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Executive  over  legislation  has 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ministers,  the  veto 
of  the  Crown  has  been  disused  since  1707. 


Has  power  to  appoint  all  officers  in  the  army 
and  navy,  judges,  ambassadors,  colonial  govern- 
ors, bishops  and  archbishops  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  grants  all  degrees  of  nobility. 

May  make  treaties  of  any  kind. 


May  grant  pardon  to  any  particular  offender. 


GERMANY. 


Chief  Magistrate  (continued). 

Powers  and  Duties  {continued)  : 

Bills  passed  by  the  two  Houses  must  be  promul- 
gated {i.e.  given  their  imperative  clause)  by  the 
Emperor. 


But,  in  case  he  regards  them  as  involving  a 
change  in  the  Constitution,  he  need  not  pro- 
mulgate them  unless  they  have  received  forty- 
five  votes  in  the  Bundesrath.  (See  Amendments.) 

All  official  acts  of  the  Emperor  require  the  counter- 
signature of  the  Chancellor. 

Appoints  and  may,  at  his  pleasure,  remove  the 
Imperial  Chancellor.  Appoints  and  may,  with 
the  countersignature  of  the  Chancellor,  remove 
all  minor  officers  in  the  imperial  service. 

May  declare  war  if  defensive,  and  make  treaties 
and  peace ;  but  for  declaring  offensive  war  the 
consent  of  the  Bundesrath  must  be  obtained. 

Has  power  to  grant  pardons. 


10 


UNITED  STATES. 


III.   Cabinet. 


Number  of  Members : 
Eight. 


Appointment : 

Chosen  by  the  President,  but  must  be  approved 
by  the  Senate. 


Relations   to  Congress: 

Do  not  have  seats  in  Congress. 


Tenure  of  Office : 
May  be  removed  by  the  President. 

Responsibility  : 

Responsible  to  the  President. 


FRANCE. 


III.  Cabinet  and  Council  of  Ministers. 

Both  the  Cabinet  and  the  Council  consist  of  the  same 
persons.  The  Cabinet  is  a  political  body;  the  Council, 
an  administrative. 

Number  of  Members  : 

Eleven. 
Appointment : 

Chosen  by  the  President,  generally  from  among 

the  members  of  the  Chambers. 


Relations  to  the  Chambers  : 

Are  the  leaders  of  the  Chambers. 

Whether  members  of  the  Chambers  or  not,  they  have 
as  Ministers  the  right  to  attend  all  sessions  of  the  Cham- 
bers and  take  a  specially  privileged  part  in  debate. 

Tenure  of  Office : 
Dependent  upon  the  favor  of  the  Chambers ;  for 
if  not  sustained,  they  must  all  resign. 

Responsibility : 
Responsible  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 


II 


ENGLAND. 


III.  Cabinet. 


Number  of  Members : 
From  ten  to  eighteen. 

Appointment : 

Nominated  from  both  Houses  by  the  leader  of 
the  dominant  party  in  majority  in  Parliament 
and  appointed  and  commissioned  by  the  Sover- 
eign.    The  leader  becomes  the  Prime  Minister. 

Relations  to  Parliament: 
Are    the   leaders   of   Parliament,   shaping   and 
directing  the  business  of  the  Houses. 


Tenure  of  Office : 
Dependent  upon  the  favor  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons ;  for  if  not  sustained,  they  must  all  resign. 

Responsibility : 

Responsible  to  the  House  of  Commons. 


GERMANY. 


III.  Imperial  Chancellor. 

He  has  no  counterpart  in  any  other  constitutional 
government.  He  is  the  Emperor's  responsible  proxy, 
controlling  the  politics  of  the  Empire. 


Appointment : 

Appointed  by  the  Emperor.  Must  be  one  of 
Prussia's  seventeen  representatives  in  the  Bun- 
desrath. 


Tenure  of  Office : 
Dependent  upon  the  pleasure  of  the  Emperor. 

Responsibility  : 

Does  not  consist  in  a  liability  to  be  forced  to 
resign,  but  consists  simply  in  amenability  to  the 
laws. 


Tsr 


UNITED  STATES. 


Cabinet  (continued^. 

Powers  and  Duties : 

Meets  in  consultation  with  the  President  con- 
cerning matters  of  poUcy  and  administration. 
Each  Minister  is  at  the  head  of  an  executive 
department. 


Members  of  the  Cabinet : 

1 .  Secretary  of  State. 

2.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

3.  Secretary  of  War. 

4.  Attorney-General. 

5.  Postmaster-General; 

6.  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

7.  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

8.  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 


FRANCE. 


Cabinet  and  Council  of  Ministers  {continued). 

Powers  and  Duties : 

As  a  Cabinet,  the  Ministers  represent  the  admin- 
istration in  the  Chambers ;  as  a  Council,  they 
exercise  a  general  oversight  of  the  administration 
of  the  laws,  with  a  view  of  giving  unity  of  direc- 
tion to  the  affairs  of  the  State.  The  President 
may  be  present  at  all  Council  meetings. 


Members  of  the  Cabinet  : 

Ministers  of — 

1.  War.                                          6. 

2.  Foreign  Affairs.                         7. 

3.  Finance.                                    8. 

4.  Public  Instruction  and  the     9. 

Fine  Arts.                            10. 

5.  Justice  and  Public  Worship.   1 1 . 

Marine  and  the  Colonies 

Public  Works. 

Agriculture. 

Commerce. 

The  Interior. 

Posts  and  Telegraphs. 

Council  of  State  : 

Gives  advice  on  all  projects  of  law  which  the  Chambers, 
or  the  Government  wish  to  submit  to  it,  and  on  adminis- 
trative regulations  and  by-laws.     Its  decision  is  final  in 
all  disputes  arising  in  matters  of  administration. 

Is  presided  over  by  the  Minister  of  Justice,  and  is  com- 
posed of  Councillors,  Masters  of  Requests,  and  Auditors, 
all  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic. 


X3 


ENGLAND. 


Cabinet  {continued). 

Powers  and  Duties : 

All  real  authority  is  with  the  Cabinet.  The  ex- 
ecutive government  is  nominally  in  the  Crown, 
but  practically  in  the  Cabinet.  The  Ministers 
are  at  the  heads  of  the  administrative  depart- 
ments. The  Sovereign  does  not  sit  with  the 
Cabinet. 

Members  of  the  Cabinet: 

"tvPrime  Minister,  and  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.^ 

2.  Lord  High  Chancellor. 

3.  Lord  President  of  the  Council. 
-4.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

5.  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department. 

6.  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

7.  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs, 

8.  Secretary  of  State  for  Colonies. 

9.  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

10.  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

11.  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland. 

12.  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 

13.  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

14.  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

15.  Lord  Privy  Seal. 

16.  President  of  the  Local  Government  Board. 

17.  President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

_  ■  1  This  is  the  almost  invariable  arrangement.     Lord  Salisbury's  com- 
bination quite  unusual. 


GERMANY. 


Imperial  Chancellor  {continued). 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

Must  give  an  account  of  the  administration  to 
the  Reichstag,  and  submits  the  annual  budget. 
He  is  the  centre  and  source  of  all  the  adminis- 
trative departments,  dominating  the  entire  impe- 
rial service.  He  superintends  the  administration 
of  the  laws  of  the  Empire  by  the  States.  As 
chairman  of  the  Bundesrath  he  is  simply  a  Prus- 
sian representing  the  King  of  Prussia,  as  the 
Emperor  has  no  place  in  the  Bundesrath. 

The  imperial  authorities  do  not  form  a  Ministry,  or  a 
Cabinet,  but  act  independently  of  each  other  under  the 
general  supervision  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor,  through  a 
central  bureau.  The  army  and  navy,  however,  are  not 
directly  controlled  by  him,  but  by  the  General  Field- 
Marshal. 


14 


UNITED  STATES. 


IV.  Congress. 

I .   Senate. 
Composition : 
Composed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State  (88 
in  1 891),  chosen  by  the  State  Legislatures  for  six 
years,  one-third  retiring  every  two  years. 


Qualifications : 
Must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  must  have 
been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  for  nine  years, 
and  must  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  which  he 
represents. 

Remuneration  : 

$5000,  with  mileage. 

Organization : 
The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  is  the 
President  of  the  Senate.     Is  elected  by  the  Elec- 
toral College.    Votes  only  in  case  of  a  tie. 


FRANCE. 


IV.  The  Chambers. 
I.   Senate. 

Composition : 
Composed  of  300  members ;  chosen  by  the  De- 
partments and  Colonies  for  nine  years,  one-third 
of  the  members  retiring  every  three  years. 

Until  1884  the  Senate  contained  75  life  members:  the 
life  list  having  been  originally  made  up  by  election  by  the 
National  Assembly  of  1875,  and'vacancies  being  filled 
by  the  Senate  itself.  In  1884  this  arrangement  was  abol- 
ished, and  since  that  year  vacancies  in  the  life  roll  have 
been  filled  by  ordinary  nine-year  Senators. 

Qualifications  : 
Must  be  a  Frenchman,  and  at  least  forty  years 
of  age. 


Remuneration  : 

15,000  francs  (;^300o). 
Organization  : 

Chooses  its  own  President,  Vice-Presidents,  and 

other  officers. 


IS 


ENGLAND. 


IV.  Parliament. 

I.  House  of  Lords. 
Composition : 

Composed  of  about  550  peers,  who  hold  their 

seats :  — 

a.  By  virtue  of  hereditary  title ; 

d.  By  creation  of  the  Sovereign  ; 

c.  By  virtue  of  office  (English  bishops)  ; 
£f.  By  election  for  life  (Irish  peers) ; 

e.  By  election  for  duration  of  Parliament  (Scot- 

tish peers). 
Qualifications : 
Must  be  at  least  twenty-one  years  of  age. 


Remuneration  i 

Receive  no  pay. 

Organization : 

The  Lord  Chancellor,  who  is  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet,  presides. 


GERMANY. 


IV.  The  Government. 

I.    BUNDESRATH,  OR   FEDERAL   CotJNCIL. 

Composition : 

Composed  of  58  members  representing  the  indi- 
vidual states.  They  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernments {i.e.  the  Executives)  of  the  States  for 
each  session. 

The  apportionments  of  representation  in  the 
■  Bundesrath  among  the  States  of  the  Empire  is 
as  follows  :  Prussia,  seventeen  members,  Bavaria 
six,  Saxony  and  Wurttemberg  four  each,  Baden 
and  Hesse  each  three,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
and  Brunswick  each  two;  the  other  States  (17) 
one  apiece. 


Remuneration  : 
Receive  no  pay. 

Organization  : 
The  Imperial  Chancellor  presides.     Votes  with 
the  other  Prussian  representatives,  whose  votes 
must  be  undivided ;  and,  in  case  of  a  tie,  Prus- 
sia's vote  decides. 


i6 


UNITED  STATES. 


Senate  {continued^. 
Committees  : 

Members  are  divided  into  standing  committees, 
chosen  by  the  Senate  itself,  which  act  in  the  pre- 
liminary examination,  and  shaping  of  measures 
to  be  voted  on. 


Quorum  : 
A  majority  of  members. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

In  concurrence  with  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, it  makes  the  laws.  It  also  has  power  to 
confirm  or  reject  all  appointments  to  office  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  all  trea- 
ties. The  members  constitute  a  high  court  for 
the  trial  of  impeachments. 


FRANCE. 


Senate  {continued). 
Committees  : 

Each  month  the  members  are  divided  by  lots 
into  "Bureaux."  These  select  all  the  special 
committees  to  which  bills  are  referred,  except 
when  the  House  chooses  itself  to  elect  a  com- 
mittee. 


Quorum  : 
A  majority  of  members. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

In  concurrence  with  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
makes  the  laws,  and  has  in  law-making  the  same 
prerogatives  as  the  Chamber,  except  that  bills 
relating  to  revenue  originate  with  the  Chamber. 
It  is  a  court  of  justice  for  trying  the  President  of 
the  RepubUc  and  the  Ministers. 


I? 


ENGLAND. 


House  of  Lords  {continued). 
Committees  : 

Special  committees  are  appointed  to  make  inves- 
tigations, and  report  on  matters  which  could  not 
be  undertaken  by  the  whole  House. 


Quorum  : 
Three,  including  the  Lord  Chancellor. 

Powers  and  Duties : 

In  concurrence  with  the  House  of  Commons, 
makes  the  laws,  having  a  revising  power  over  all 
bills  proposed  hy  the  House  of  Commons,  ex- 
cept those  relating  to  public  revenue  and  expen- 
diture, which  it  must  pass  or  reject  without  amend- 
ment.    It  is  also  the  supreme  court  of  appeal. 


GERMANY. 


BuNDESRATH  {continued). 
Committees  : 

There  are  three  standing  committees  and  eight 
commissions,  two  of  which  are  appointed  by  the 
Emperor,  five  wholly  by  the  Bundesrath,  and  one 
in  part  by  the  Bundesrath,  being  made  up  princi- 
pally of  members  ex  officio. 

Each  commission  consists  of  representatives  of  at  least 
five  States  of  the  Empire. 

Quorum : 

The  Imperial  Chancellor  or  his  substitute  (at 
regular  meeting). 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

May  originate  bills  to  be  sent  to  the  Reichstag. 
Its  consent  is  indispensable  to  the  validity  of  all 
legislation.  Members  may  speak  on  the  floor  of 
the  Reichstag.  Acting  under  the  direction  of 
the  Imperial  Chancellor,  it  is  the  supreme  admin- 
istrative board.  It  is  in  some  cases  the  highest 
court  of  the  Empire.  Is  the  court  of  appeal  be- 
tween two  or  more  States  of  the  Empire. 


i8 


UNITED  STATES. 


2.   House  of  Representatives. 

Composition : 

Composed  (in  1890)  of  330  members  elected 
every  second  year  for  two  years  by  the  people 
of  the  States  in  the  proportion  of  one  Represen- 
tative for  every  154,325  inhabitants.  Each  State, 
however,  is  entitled  to  at  least  one  member,  what- 
ever its  population. 

Qualifications  : 

Must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age,  must 
have  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  must  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State 
from  which  he  is  chosen. 


Remuneration : 
$5000  and  mileage. 

Organization : 

Elects  its  own  presiding  officer,  who  is  called  the 
Speaker. 


FRANCE. 


2.   Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Composition  : 

Composed  (in  1890)  of  584  Deputies,  distrib- 
uted among  the  Departments  and  certain  colo- 
nies in  the  proportion  of  one  Deputy  to  70,000 
inhabitants.  The  Deputies  are  chosen  for  a  term 
of  four  years  by  universal  suffrage,  the  Arrondisse- 
ments  serving  as  electoral  districts. 

Qualifications  : 

Must  be  a  citizen  of  France,  and  at  least  twenty- 
five  years  of  age. 


Remuneration : 

9000  francs  ($1800). 

Organization  : 
Elects  its  own  President  and  Vice-Presidents. 


'9 


ENGLAND. 


2.   House  of  Commons. 

Composition  : 

Composed  (in  1890)  of  670  members,  elected 
by  secret  ballot  for  a  term  of  00^  years. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  Parliament  lias  always  been  dis- 
solved before  the  expiration  of  immn  years,  thus  necessi- 
tating a  new  election.  S~ 


Qualifications  : 

Must  be  at  least  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Cler- 
gymen are  disqualified  from  sitting  as  members, 
also  English  and  Scottish  peers,  government  con- 
tractors, and  sheriffs  and  returning  officers  for 
the  localities  for  which  they  act. 

Remuneration  : 
Receive  no  pay. 

Organization  : 

Elects  its  own  presiding  officer,  who  is  called  the 
Speaker. 


GERMANY. 


2.   Reichstag,  or  Imperul  Diet. 

Composition  : 

Composed  (in  1890)  of  397  members,  allotted 
in  the  ratio  of  one  member  to  every  100,000  in- 
habitants, and  elected  for  five  years  by  universal 
suffrage. 


QuaUfications  : 

Must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and 
have  lived  at  least  one  year  in  one  of  the  Ger- 
man States. 


Remuneration  : 
Receive  no  pay. 

Organization  : 
Elects  its  own  presiding  officer. 


29 


UNITED  STATES. 


House  of  Representatives  {continued). 

Committees  : 

Almost  all  the  acts  of  the  House  are  under  the 
control  of  Standing  Committees,  appointed  by 
the  Speaker. 


Quorum  : 
A  majority  of  members. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

May  originate  and,  in  concurrence  with  the  Sen- 
ate, pass  resolutions  and  bills.  Bills  relating  to 
the  raising  of  revenue  must  be  originated  by  the 
House,  but  may  be  amended  by  the  Senate. 
Has  sole  power  of  impeachment. 


FRANCE. 


Chamber  of  Deputies  {continued'). 
Committees  : 

Each  month  the  members  are  divided  by  lot  into 
eleven  "  Bureaux,"  which  select  all  the  special 
committees  to  which  bills  are  referred,  except 
when  the  Chamber  chooses  to  appoint  a  com- 
mittee directly. 


Quorum  : 
A  majority  of  members. 

Powers  and  Duties  : 

May  originate  and,  in  concurrence  with  the  Sen- 
ate, pass  resolutions  and  bills ;  but  bills  relating 
to  finance  must  be  originated  by  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  Has  power  to  bring  accusations 
against  the  President  of  the  Republic  and  the 
Ministers. 


ai 


ENGLAND. 


House  of  Commons  {continued^. 
Committees : 

The  business  of  the  House  is  almost  entirely 
under  the  direction  of  the  Ministry;  however, 
commissions  and  select  committees  are  from 
time  to  time  appointed  to  make  investigations 
and  report  on  matters  which  could  not  be  under- 
taken by  the  House. 

Quorum  : 
Forty  members,  including  the  Speaker. 

Powers  and  Duties : 

May  originate  and, ,  in  concurrence  with  the 
House  of  Lords,  pass  resolutions  and  bills ;  but 
bills  relating  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  and  the 
granting  of  supplies  for  the  service  of  the  State 
must  be  originated  in  the  House  of  Commons. 


GERMANY. 


Reichstag  (continued). 
Committees : 

There  are  no  standing  committees,  but  select 
committees  are  occasionally  appointed  by  elec- 
tion from  the  seven  "  Sections  "  into  which  the 
members  are  divided  by  lot  for  committee  work. 


Quorum  : 
A  majority  of  members. 

Powers  and  Duties : 

Has  power  to  originate  and,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Bundesrath,  to  enact  the  laws. 
It  also  exerts  a  controlling  influence  through  its 
power  to  give  or  withhold  its  sanction  to  certain 
ordinances  to  whose  validity  the  Constitution 
makes  its  concurrence  necessary;  through  its 
right  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  affairs ;  and 
in  many  other  ways  not  susceptible  of  enumera- 
tion. 


22 


In  preparing  the  foregoing  pages,  reference  has  been  made  among  others  to  the  following  treatises  :  — 

Amos,  SheMon.     Primer  of  the  English  Constitution  and  Government.    Ed.  4.     Lond.  1883. 

Bagehot,  Walter.     English  Constitution.     N.  Y.  1882. 

Bryce,  James.    American  Commonwealth.     2  vols.    Lond.  1889.    Vol.  I. 

Demombynes,  G.    Les  Constitutions  Europ^ennes.    2  vols.    Paris,  1883. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica.    Ed.  9.    Articles  on  United  States,  France,  England,  Germany,  Parliament,  Cabinet. 

Heam,  W.  E.     Government  of  England.    Ed.  2.     Lond.  1887. 

H61ie,  F.  H.     Les  Constitutions  de  la  France.     Paris,  1880. 

Lalor,  J.  J.    Cyclopaedia  of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy,  and  of  the  Political  History  of  the  United  States. 

3  vols.    Chicago,  1883-4. 
Labon,  A.,  and  Pelet,  P.    France  as  It  Is.    Lond.  1888. 

Nicolson,  A.    Sketch  of  the  German  Constitution,  and  of  Events  in  Germany  from  1815-1871.    Lond.  1875. 
Morhan,  C.     De  I'Empire  AUemand,  sa  Constitution,  et  son  Administration.    Paris,  1886. 
Palgrave,  Reginald  F.  D.     House  of  Commons.    Lond.  1869. 
Statesman's  Year-Book.    Lond.  1890. 

Todd,  Alpheus.    Parliamentary  Government  in  England.    New  ed.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1888-9. 
Towle,  N.  C.    History  and  Analysis  of  the  Constitution  of  United  States.    Ed.  3.    Bost.  1871. 
Wilson,  Woodrow.    The  State.    Bost.  i88g. 


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